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A collective textbook-guide by Colaboratoria
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A collective textbook-guide by Colaboratoria
Chapter 1

Immersion in the methodology of scientific research

  • Daria Moiseeva
    Author
Any form of academic research, a term paper, a bachelor’s thesis, or a PhD dissertation, begins with the development of a research design. The latter requires approval from an academic supervisor; however, so that even a novice researcher can conduct independent academic work, this chapter presents a clear and accessible explanation of the essence of each stage.
/01

Identifying the research topic and problem area

Choosing a field of academic interest

The starting point of any research project is the selection of the topic of the future study. At this stage, it is not yet the formal title of the work, but rather the field of knowledge to which the researcher intends to contribute. It is critically important that the topic genuinely interests the researcher, because the desire to satisfy one’s own intellectual curiosity and to establish the truth is the key to successful academic work. At this stage, the topic may be formulated in an abstract manner, but in any case it should reflect the object of research in a broad sense.
Examples:
"U.S. foreign policy," "Russian-Chinese relations," and "Economic development of the Arctic" are research topics in a broad sense and fields of academic interest; they also contain information about the object of research.

Formulating the problem, the subject, and the title of the study

Next, the researcher must ask themselves: What exactly do I want to study within the chosen topic, and what problem do I want to solve? This brings us to the crucial stage of formulating the research problem, without which no research is possible. The problem is the driving force of the research; the logic of the entire study is built around ways of resolving it. If a study has no problem, there is no point in writing it, because an academic text without a problem turns into an encyclopedic reference article that merely describes a phenomenon and its characteristics.
The ability to "sense" and formulate a research problem comes with experience, but there are several criteria that can help a novice researcher identify a problem and understand whether they are on the right path.
  • Scientific novelty
Solving a research problem should contribute to academic knowledge, that is, it should contain added knowledge, information that did not previously exist. The key challenge here is distinguishing genuinely new information from information that is new only to the researcher but already known to the scholarly community. This is precisely why a literature review is so important.
At first glance, the task of identifying added knowledge may seem overly ambitious, especially for undergraduate students. However, it is important not to overestimate one’s capabilities and to remember that: First, only a doctoral dissertation is expected to contain a genuine scientific discovery. All other types of academic work are, to varying degrees, educational in nature and contribute only a scholarly increment to our understanding of the research subject.
Second, added knowledge may consist of the collection, updating, and interpretation of data; data classification; identification of a new trend based on collected data, in other words, virtually any empirical research, even a modest one, that is within the capabilities of bachelor’s and master’s students.
  • Scientific conflict
A research problem always implies tension, just as a good play implies the presence of dramatic conflict. However, whereas in literature we observe conflicts between fictional characters (and in real life — between people), in science we deal with conflicts between abstract phenomena, concepts, or events.
Therefore, resolving a scientific conflict involves explaining a new phenomenon, conceptualizing it, resolving a contradiction between two or more phenomena (social, economic, political), or establishing a logical connection between them. Put simply, in science the source of tension is everything that remains unexplored, unknown, or unpredictable — that is, a vast portion of the reality around us.
    • important

    The problem, the subject, and the title of the study form a logical triad. If this principle is observed, the problem is formulated correctly and the subject is defined appropriately. Therefore, a well-formulated title should contain both the subject of the research and the problem.
  • important
The problem, the subject, and the title of the study form a logical triad. If this principle is observed, the problem is formulated correctly and the subject is defined appropriately. Therefore, a well-formulated title should contain both the subject of the research and the problem.
For example, suppose a student of international relations is interested in digital diplomacy and the Global South. Neither digital diplomacy itself nor the Global South can serve as a title of an academic study, but both can function as objects of research. The subject of research is always formulated more narrowly than the object and points to a specific aspect, characteristic, or property.
In this case, "The impact of digital colonialism on the diplomatic activity of Global South countries at UN platforms"may serve as the subject of academic research.
Once the subject is identified, it remains to formulate the problem and fix the title of the study.
Suppose the student specializes in the African region and wishes to explore "the consequences of digital dependence on global platforms for the participation of African countries in international digital diplomacy."
In this case, the word "consequences" serves as an indicator of the research problem, as it embodies the tension and uncertainty that the author must address.
This leads to possible titles such as:
  • / option 1
    The Consequences of Digital Dependence on Global Platforms for the Participation of African Countries in Digital Diplomacy within the UN Framework (2015−2025)

    This title contains three important constraints that make the topic specific, concise, and capable of eliminating additional off-topic questions during the defense:
    1. the time frame (2015−2025);
    2. the type of consequences — participation in diplomacy (rather than technical independence or legal regulation);
    3. the region — African countries (not the entire Global South, not Latin America, not individual states).
  • / option 2
    Digital Diplomacy of Global South Countries under Conditions of Technological Dependence: A Search for Instruments of Influence on the Formation of International Digital Norms (Based on UN Initiatives)

    Here, the problem is indicated by the word "search," which is likewise associated with uncertainty that the author must resolve in the course of the study.

    The specifying constraints are:
    1. the group of countries — the Global South (not individual states and not all developing countries);
    2. the time frame — implicitly defined through contemporary initiatives (the 2020s);
    3. the diplomatic dimension — influence on norm-making (rather than mere participation in negotiations or infrastructure projects).
Both titles can be considered well-formulated and academically sound because they:
  • Indicate a research problem through words such as "search" and "consequences" (other acceptable terms include "prospects," "trends," etc.);
  • Contain several meaningful constraints that maximize specificity;
  • Reflect the subject of research.
  • Tip

    At this stage, it is useful to practice a pitch or elevator talk — the ability to explain clearly and accessibly, in a short period of time, what your research is about to someone who is not familiar with the topic.
Tip
At this stage, it is useful to practice a pitch or elevator talk — the ability to explain clearly and accessibly, in a short period of time, what your research is about to someone who is not familiar with the topic.
An interesting exception, which by definition functions as both a topic and a problem and does not require complex formulation, is conflict. Any conflict — from direct military confrontations to economic and sanctions wars — belongs to the so-called conventional problems of international relations. Therefore, including a specific conflict in the title already signals the presence of a research problem.
At the same time, the topic still requires conceptual specification and/or temporal limitation. The use of words such as "problems" and "aspects," although reducing originality, is entirely acceptable and appropriate for novice researchers.
/02

Research Design

Once the topic is chosen and the subject and scientific problem are formulated, the researcher proceeds to developing the research design. Essentially, the introduction is the part of the study where the author presents their understanding of the research problem, its causes, and possible solutions. A detailed design is necessary because there are many ways to solve the same problem, and each study is unique in that the author proposes and justifies their own solution. The design may be simplified or more detailed depending on the academic level — from a term paper to a PhD dissertation.
The key elements of research design are:
Research question
Aim
Objectives
Hypothesis

Research Question

The research question specifies the research problem and contains interrogative words such as "what?", "how?", "why?", "in what way?" The author must always keep the research question in mind, because the main purpose of academic research is to answer it. Every part of the study should move the author closer to this answer. If a paragraph does not serve this purpose, there is no reason to keep it.
Example:
Why have Global South countries intensified the promotion of the digital sovereignty agenda on international platforms despite their technological dependence on global platforms and infrastructure?
As can be seen, the question is formulated in a sufficiently detailed and specific manner, yet it cannot be answered with a simple response. Such a question requires a comprehensive solution, which is why the aim and objectives are formulated next.

Aim

Multiple aims may be formulated for a single research question. The purpose of defining the aim is to narrow the range of possible approaches and to show what exactly the research will focus on. The aim must be specific and achievable so that, at the end of the study, it is possible to determine whether it has been achieved.
Examples of aims:
  • to explain the political and normative motivations of Global South countries promoting the concept of digital sovereignty;
  • to examine how these countries use diplomatic instruments to compensate for technological dependence;
  • to analyze international discussions and initiatives in which this agenda becomes part of a broader struggle for new digital rules.

Objectives

After defining the aim, the researcher can move on to formulating objectives. There will be several of them, and they must correspond to each chapter of the study. Objectives reflect the stages the author goes through to achieve the aim and answer the research question.
The number of objectives may vary from 3 for term papers, to 5 for master’s theses, and 7−8 for PhD dissertations. The principle "less is more" should be followed, as committees primarily assess how well the objectives were addressed and how appropriate the methodology was.
Examples of objectives:

For the first (theoretical) chapter:
  • to trace the evolution of the concept of digital sovereignty in international relations and its connection to broader theories of global governance;
  • to analyze key approaches to interpreting technological dependence in political theory and diplomatic practice.
For the second (problem-oriented) chapter:
  • to identify how Global South countries use diplomatic channels and platforms (UN, BRICS, IGF, etc.) to articulate digital sovereignty demands;
  • to describe practices of interaction with global digital platforms under conditions of limited access to infrastructure and computing resources.
For the third (analytical) chapter:
  • to assess how the promotion of the digital sovereignty agenda affects the development of new forms of digital diplomacy and the participation of Global South countries in shaping international digital norms.
Each objective should contain an active and specific verb, such as:
  • examine features
  • identify a role
  • define a function
  • study a problem area
  • consider strategies
  • clarify conceptual model
  • interpret results
  • analyze a process
  • calculate costs
  • identify a trend
  • produce a forecast
  • propose recommendations

Hypothesis

In some research projects (starting from the master’s level), a hypothesis is required. A strong study typically contains one or two hypotheses; more than that is rare. Working on a hypothesis is a useful intellectual exercise that clarifies the essence of the research for the author.
A hypothesis must be formulated in accordance with the laws of logic. Most hypotheses take the form of either a dichotomy (if not A, then B) or a sequential statement (if A, then B).
Example of a dichotomous hypothesis:

If Global South countries maintain the current level of technological dependence on leading digital powers, they will either be forced to adapt to externally imposed digital norms and infrastructure (thus losing the ability to pursue an independent digital policy), or they will actively promote the idea of digital sovereignty through diplomatic and coalition mechanisms, which will ultimately lead to attempts to reform the existing architecture of global digital governance.
In the hypothesis, it is extremely important to reflect the causal relationship of those phenomena that are studied in the work, while it does not necessarily have to contain the word "if".
Example of a sequential hypothesis:

The hypothesis of the dissertation is that, under conditions of increasing technological dependence on global digital platforms, the promotion of the digital sovereignty agenda by Global South countries on international platforms enables them not only to articulate their position on digital governance issues, but also to use digital diplomacy mechanisms to increase autonomy and influence within the global normative agenda. This, in turn, contributes to the formation of alternative approaches to digital regulation and strengthens the political weight of these countries in the digital domain.
An integral part of the design, from which success is choosing the right methodology, which we dedicated a separate Chapter 3. Here also note that all elements of the design needs to engage with each friend contradiction. When possible logical inconsistencies are eliminated, you can begin to develop a detailed plan.
/03

Structuring the logic of the research

The next important stage is drafting a research plan. Although this may seem counterintuitive to novice researchers, as it requires anticipating both intermediate stages and results, this step is essential. Experience shows that letting the research "flow naturally" rarely produces strong academic texts.
While it is not necessary to precisely predict results at the outset, it is crucial to outline an intuitive logic of the plan, which can later be adjusted.
Russian and European research traditions are based on Cartesian logic, emphasizing theoretical thinking and rational cognition. This means that the argumentation must be clear and systematic so that the reader can retrace the author’s intellectual path.
For student final qualifying papers, two research logics are most in demand and win-win: sequential (linear) and parallel (comparative).
  • Sequential (Linear)
Used in the majority of studies, where the research unfolds step by step around a single subject.
  • Parallel (Comparative)
Used in comparative studies, where the focus is on comparing characteristics, stages of development, or multiple objects (political systems, electoral systems, parties, development models, etc.).
Accordingly, for each type of presentation logic, approximate "patterns" of the plan can be proposed. At this stage, the previously formulated tasks need to be compared with a specific chapter in which this task will be solved.
  • Sequential structure
    Introduction
    Chapter 1. Theoretical
    Chapter 2. Problem-oriented (practical)
    Chapter 3. Prognostic
    Conclusion
  • Parallel structure
    Introduction
    Chapter 1. Theoretical
    Chapter 2. Object 1
    Chapter 3. Object 2
    Chapter 4. Synthesis: Comparative Results
    Conclusion
  • Sequential structure
    Introduction
    Chapter 1. Theoretical
    Chapter 2. Problem-oriented (practical)
    Chapter 3. Prognostic
    Conclusion
  • Parallel structure
    Introduction
    Chapter 1. Theoretical
    Chapter 2. Object 1
    Chapter 3. Object 2
    Chapter 4. Synthesis: Comparative Results
    Conclusion
In both cases, the logic moves from theory to empirical analysis and toward answering the research question.
/04

Fundamentals of academic writing

Academic research requires an academic style of writing. Beginners should avoid extremes — either excessive simplification with journalistic language or unnecessary complexity that obscures meaning. All that is brilliant is simple, but not primitive.
Good academic style rests on two principles:
  • clarity of thought;
  • appropriate and precise language.
Self-editing skills are essential. A common mistake among beginners is excessive descriptiveness, which turns a text into reference material and strips it of analysis. A good academic text, even on a complex topic, reads easily. It has internal logic and guides the reader step by step, like a sequence of interconnected rooms.
The recommendations presented in this chapter are not universal standards but practical methodological techniques that have proven effective. Over time, every researcher develops their own style — citation metrics ultimately determine its success.
The recommendations set out in this chapter are not generally accepted standards. This is just a set of methodological techniques that have shown their effectiveness in practice. All researchers are individual as individuals, so over the years they develop their own unique style, which may or may not be understandable and pleasant to a wide audience. The citation rating puts everything in its place.

Practicum

  • Why is the research problem the driving force of academic research, and how does it differ from a research question?
  • How are the aim and objectives of research interconnected?
  • What ways of structuring research logic exist?
  • What ensures the logical coherence of a study?
  • What principles underlie academic writing?
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